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The non-dualistic perspective is central to the tradition of Advaita Vedânta, the Indian movement that goes back to the old Upanishads (8th to 6th century BC.). These writings are called Vedânta, because they form the final parts and in a way conclude the Vedas (Veda-anta). In many places they offer an approach to the primal foundation of everything (Brahman). It is the source of all, supports everything, makes everything possible, pervading all, but also transcendent of cosmos and world. Additionally, the highest truth is sought through reflection and growing awareness of one's self, of being one's self, one's self as the highest subject (Âtman). The most striking thesis is that Âtman is Brahman. They are identical and with it all separations disappear. To understand this in a vibrant and penetrating way means the liberation of all limiting ties, the bonds of action and its outcome (karma) and so too of rebirth (samsâra).
What kind of sorrow or disappointment can exist for the one who knows that everything is in the One and the One is in everything?
Isha Upanishad 1.71
In all periods and locations of Indian culture, as well as in the Bhagavadgîtâ, one can find the concept of non-duality. The tradition that furthers and elaborates the teaching of the non-duality of the Upanishads is called Advaita Vedânta. In this tradition many sages, liberated in this life (jîvanmukta), taught others. Some of them gave clarifying philosophical elaborations of Advaita Vedânta. Amongst them Shankara2 (Shankarâchârya of the 8th century) is the most prominent.
 
Ramana Maharshi3,4 († 1950) and Nisargadatta Maharaj5 († 1981) are two advaita teachers who had many western students. Through them and other teachers, the advaita approach became known in the West.
Non-duality contains the central point in other traditions, for instance in the Shaivism of Kashmir, Buddhism, Daoism, Jewish and Christian mysticism, and Sufism.
In western philosophical tradition the question of the one and the many has been discussed continuously. Since the early-Greek nature philosophers, the source and the supporting foundation of everything has been sought. Well-known theses in the history of thought refer to Nature, to God and to man.
The viewpoints of this basic Nature vary considerably . It was an original element to the ancient Greeks, it was a Creative Nature in Romanticism, the vitalism of Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and Bergson, and in the current New Age-movement. In this creative concept of nature man takes part. By surrendering himself to Nature, unity remains.
The God of the Jewish and Christian religion is, as a creator, separated from his creation, to which man belongs. Only in Pantheism and the mysticism of Oneness the separation is greatly reduced or absent alltogether.
The the thought of the18th and 19th century, man as a rational being held a central position. In the philosophy of man and the existentialism of the 20th century, man possessed all aspects of his life in the world. Then, the philosophers emphasized the ambiguity of the relationship between people and the world/cosmos: on the one hand we are part of the world, on the other hand we are aware of it and we can (partially) withdraw ourselves from it. Monistic visions, from materialism to idealism, dissolved the ambiguity through their emphasis on one or the other of the two poles. Indefiniteness became a central idea of the so-called post-modern philosophers, who often adhered to relativism and pragmatism as the basic qualities of this indefiniteness.
In spite of the varying viewpoints and discussions, the fundamental questions concerning the supporting foundation of everything, the nature of one's self-being and the relation between the two, persist. In many cases, they correspond to those of Indian non-dualistic philosophy For this reason comparative examinations are possible and desirable.
On the day you were one, you became two,
but when you become two, what will you do? …
When you make the two one,
you will become the son of man.
Jezus in The Gospel of Thomas6
Notes
1. In: De elf grote Upanishaden met toelichting, D. Tiemersma (editor.), Publshr. Advaita Centrum, Leusden 2004, pgs. 166; Another book with selections from the literature of the Upanishads in the Dutch language and with commentary is: W. H. van Vledder Het mysterie van het zelf - Upanishaden, Ankh-Hermes, Deventer 2000.
2. A few books with texts from Shankara are the following: S. Mayeda (ed.) A thousand teachings of Sankara, State University of New York, New York. Swami Nikhilananda (transl.), Âtmabodha, Ramakrishna Math, Madras 1975, G. Thibaut (transl.) The Vedântasûtras with the commentary of Sankarâchârya, Dover, New York 1962.
3. Ramana Maharshi, Ramana Upanishad, (Philip Renard editor and translator), Servire, Utrecht 1999 - this book contains a collection of the writings of Ramana Maharsi.
4. Ramana Maharshi, De leerlingen van Ramana Maharshi, (David Goleman ed.) Mirananda, Den Haag 1985 - a thematic ordering of the teachings of Ramana Maharshi.
5. Nisargadatta Maharaj, I am That. Talks with Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj (Maurice Freedman ed.; Douwe Tiemersma 'Foreword') Chetana, Bombay 1973 etc.; Dutch translation: Ik ben, en Zijn, Altamira-Becht, Bloemendaal 2000 - there are more translated books of Nisargadatta in both English and Dutch but this volume has become a classic of spiritual literature. See also the Literature list for Sri Nisargadatta Maharaj.
6. The gospel according to Thomas, Ankh-Hermes, Deventer 1999, p. 80, 158.
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Background 
